TABLE
OF CONTENT
Title Page –
– – – – – – – – i
Certification –
– – – – – – – ii
Dedication – – – – – – – – iii
Acknowledgement – –
– – – – – – iv
Table of
contents – –
– – – – – – v
List of tables –
– – – – – – – – viii
List of figures
– – –
– – – – – – ix
Abstract – – – – – – – – x
CHAPTER ONE:
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information – – –
– – 1
1.2 Statement of Problem – – –
– – – – 3
1.3 Objectives of the Study – – –
– – – 5
1.4 Research Hypotheses –
– – –
– – 5
1.5 Justifications for the Study: –
– — – – 6
1.6 Limitation of the Study –
– – – – – – 7
1.7 Plan of the Report – – – – – – – 7
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW
OF LITERATURE
2.1 Introduction –
– – – — – – 9
2.2 The Role of Women in Agriculture – – – – 9
2.2.1 Role of Women in Rural Development – – 12
2.2.2 Role of Women in Food Crop Production – – – 16
2.2.3 Women in Forestry/Environment – – – – 19
2.2.4 Women in Livestock Production – – – – 19
2.2.5 Women in Post harvest Activities – – – – 20
2.3 Labour as a Factor of Agricultural
Production – 21
2.4 Sources of Agricultural Labour – – – – 22
2.4.1 Family Labour – – – — –
– – – 23
2.4.2 Hired or Wage Labour – – – – – 23
2.4.3 Communal Labour – – – – – – 24
2.5 Women as Sources of Agricultural Labour
– – – 25
2.6 Factors Affecting Agricultural
Labour – – – 29
2.7 Factors Affecting Agricultural
Production and their Implications for Women Farmers – – – – – – 31
2.8 Constraints to Women Agricultural
Production Efforts – 32
2.8.1 Land Tenure System – –
– – – 33
2.8.2 Lack of Improved Technology – – – – 34
2.8.3 Lack of Credit – –
– – – – – 35
2.8.4 Lack of Time –
– – – – – – 36
2.8.5 Lack of Extension Services –
– – – – 36
2.9 Strategies Towards Enhancing the
Performance of Women Farmers in Crop Production –
– 37
2.10 Theoretical; Framework – – 42
2.10.1 The Concept of Participation in Agricultural
Development Programmes – 42
2.10.2 Participatory Models – – – – – 43
2.10.2.1 The Transfer
of Technology Model (TOT) – – – 43
2.10.2.2 Ministry/Conventional General Extension
(Colonial Model) 44
2.10.2.3 The Participatory Development Models – – 45
2.11 Analytical Framework – – – – 46
2.11.1 Multiple Regression Analysis – – – – 47
2.11.2 Multinomial Logit Models – – – – 48
2.11.3 The t-test – – –
– – – 50
2.11.4 Likert Rating Scale Technique – – – – 50
CHAPTER THREE:
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 The Study Area – – – – – – 51
3.2 Sampling Procedure – – – – – 51
3.3 Data Collection – – – – – – 52
3.4 Data Analysis – – – – – 53
3.5 Model Specification –
– – – – – 53
3.5.1 Student t-test – – – – – – 53
3.5.2 Multinomial logit model –
– – – – 53
3.5.3 Multiple Regression –
– — – – – 57
3.5.4 Likert Scale Rating Technique – – – – 58
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
AND DISCUSSIONS
Socio – economic Characteristics of Women
Respondents – 59
4.1.1 Age of Women Respondent –
– – – – 59
Marital Status of
Women Respondents – –
–
Primary and
Secondary Occupations of
Respondents 60
Educational
Attainment of Women Respondents
– 61
Farming experience of
Women Farmers – – 62
Farm Size – – – – – 62
Distance of Farm from
Home – – – – 63
Annual Income of the
Women Respondents – – 63
Household Size – – – –
6459
Specific Crop Production Operations that
Utilize Women Labour in the Study Area
– – – 65
4.3 Men and Women Labour at Different Levels
of Crop Production Operations in the Study Area – –
– – 66
4.4 Factors Affecting Women Participation in
Farm Operations – 68
4.4.1 Socio-economic Characteristics Affecting
the Labour Utilization of Women in Different Farm Operations – – – 68
4.5 Effects of Women Labour Utilization on
Farmers’ Total Output/Revenue – 70
4.6 Farm Constraints – – – – – – 73
4.7 Reasons why previous intervention
measure did not achieve much success
– 75
CHAPTER FIVE:
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary — – – – – – 78
Conclusion –
– – – – – – 79
Recommendations – – – –
80
Contribution to
Knowledge – – – 82
Suggestion for
Further Research – – – 82
References – – – – – – – 83
Appendix –
Questionnaire – –
– – – –
94
LIST OF TABLES
Table
2.1 Percentage of total labour in hours
between men and women in Africa
– – – – 19
2.2 Percentage contribution of African women
to family Livelihood 27
2.3 Gender daily hourly contribution on
Agricultural and Non Agricultural Activity
– – – – – 28
4.1 The frequency distribution of women
farmers by age – 59
4.2 The frequency distribution of
respondents according to marital status
– 60
4.3 The frequency distribution of respondent
according to status in farming 60
4.4 The frequency distribution of
respondents according to secondary occupation
= – – – – 61
4.5: The frequency distribution of respondents
according to formal education attained – –
– 61
4.6 The frequency distribution of
respondents according to years of farming experience – – – – – 62
4.7 The frequency distribution of
respondents according to farm size 63
4.8 The frequency distribution of
respondents according to farm distance
– 63
4.9 The frequency distribution of
respondents according to annual income
– 63
4.10 The frequency distribution of respondents
according to proportion of income derived from crop production – – – 64
4.11 Percentage distribution of respondents
according to household size 65
4.12 Percentage distribution of crop production
operations and labour use 65
4.13 The mean values of hours spent by men and
women respondents in different levels of crop production – – – 66
4.14 Result of Multinomial Logit Model Analysis
of Women Participation in Different Crop
Farm Operation – – – 68
4.15 Estimates of the determinants of output
for women labour utilization 71
4.16 Distribution of respondents according to
farm constraints identified 74
4.17 Distribution of respondents according to
participation in extension and rural
development programmes – – – 76
4.18 Reasons why previous strategy did not work
– – – 77
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: The
dualistic nature of women’s role in the economy in general and agriculture and
food security in particular – – 14
Figure 2: Transfer of Technology Model (TOT) – – – 44
Figure 3: Participatory Development Model – —
– – 46
ABSTRACT
The main aim of the
study was to analyze women labour utilization in crop production in Abia State.
The specific objectives included (i) identify specific farming operations that
utilize women labour in the study area;
(ii) compare the relative contribution of women and men to total labour
utilization in different levels of farm operation in the study area; (iii)
identify factors that affect the participation of women in different levels of
farm operations; (iv) determine the effect of women labour utilization on the
value of farm output ; and (v) identify
and analyze the constraints facing women farmers in crop production in
the study area. Using multi-stage sampling technique, the study area was zoned
into three using the existing zoning arrangement of the Abia State Agricultural
Development Programme (ADP). Nine (9) rural Local Government Areas (LGA) were
randomly selected from the Zones. From the LGAs, 18 communities were randomly
selected and from the communities, 36 villages were randomly selected. From
these villages, 108 households having women farmers were randomly selected. A
set of structured questionnaire was administered on the relevant women and men
farmers in the household to obtain required information. Data were analyzed
using descriptive statistics, multiple regression analysis, t-test, likert
rating scale and multinomial logit model. Results showed that among twelve crop
production operations identified in 2010 farming season, greater proportion of
all the operations were executed by the women farmers e.g. harvesting 70%,
planting 63%, weeding 60% and transplanting 58%. The men and hired labour were
used for tedious operations like ridging and bush clearing. The multinomial
logit result showed that the participation of women belonging to large families
were less in clearing and cultivation. Their level of income had a negative
relationship with clearing. The multiple regression analysis showed that
greater number of variables like age, farm experience and household size were
significant and have positive effect on output at 5 % level of significance.
The multiple regression analysis showed that the value of Coefficient of
determination otherwise known as R-square (R2) was 0.67. Despite the high level of participation of
women farmers in crop production, they still face unique constraints which
adversely affected their ability to increase food production. The identified
problems included lack of finance, lack of improved inputs, lack of storage
facilities among others. Poor implementation of agricultural projects and
policies, lack of government commitment and intervention programmes not
directed to the farmers needs were the major reasons why previous intervention
measures did not achieve much success. The study therefore recommended that
adequate finance should be provided by government to support women labour requirements.
Government should ensure implementation of agricultural programmes by
monitoring and evaluating them from the beginning to the end by independent
consultants. The problem of illiteracy among rural women can be overcome if
extension services extend their training to the rural women.
CHAPTER
ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Nigeria at the moment is witnessing
an upward trend in the price of foodstuffs partly due to the inability of
production to keep pace with increase in demand. Demand itself increases
largely as a result of increase in population. The resulting effect of this
imbalance between demand for and supply of food is malnutrition, poverty and
deteriorating living conditions (Nnadozie and Ibe, 2000). This is mainly
because agriculture is being neglected and, sometimes, down played in
development strategies.
Agriculture is one of the main
pillars of the Nigerian economy because it plays many roles. It is a major source of food to the
population, it provides employment for over 70 to 80 percent of the population
and it is the only thriving economic activity in rural areas. It contributes
foreign exchange as well as a source of industrial raw materials for the nation’s
industries (Amanze, 2000).
However, with the oil boom in the
seventies, there was a sharp decline in agricultural production as people’s
attention was diverted from agriculture to the oil sector of the economy. The
“oil boom” also rendered many indigenous land owners landless and, in some
cases, a reduction in the hectare farmed. There was rural-urban movement
because of lack of social amenities in the rural areas. Many able bodied men
moved to the urban centres in search of white-collar jobs because of the income
disparity and availability of amenities in the urban areas. Women and their
children were left behind to carry on agricultural production activities which
resulted in many household economic activities championed by women. This
situation placed on them the responsibility of taking decisions on issues on
the farm (Lily, Feidman and Shert., 2001).
Attempts to restore
agriculture to its former glory, national efforts to boost the production of
food and cash crops have been made through a number of agricultural programmes
like National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP), Operation Feed the
Nation (OFN), Green Revolution Programmes, Go Back to Land, Directorate for
Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI) etc. Despite these efforts the problem of food shortage
continues. Food production strategies so far tried, appeared to have achieved
limited success. One of the remote causes of the apparent failure was inability
to develop and utilize the nation’s manpower resources effectively and
efficiently especially in the rural sector (Okunade, 1998).
The involvement of
women in agriculture has attracted greater attention in recent years because
women play very significant roles in Nigeria’s agricultural production,
processing and utilization (Nnadozie and Ibe, 2000). Millions of women work as
farmers, farm workers and resources managers (Olayide et al, 1990). In doing
so, they contribute to national agricultural output, maintenance of environment
and family food security (Brown et al., 2001). They dominate in almost all
phases of food production such as production of food crops like maize, cassava,
vegetables and yam. They have also undertaken the rearing of small farm animals
and execution of certain intricate farm operations (Oluwesola 1998). Not only
do women play significant roles in food production, they are now also mastering
those aspects of agriculture that used to belong exclusively to men. For
instance, women help with the strenuous jobs of cutting trees and clearing
bushes (Onyibe, 2001). Nnoyelu and Gadzane (1991), revealed that women were
found working all the year round producing food crops while men performed only
pre-planting tasks that occupy small parts of the agricultural year.
While men specialized in certain
tasks like clearing bush or forest, cultivation, felling or pruning trees,
ploughing or tiling the land, women, have been estimated to do 70 percent of
hoeing and weeding, 60 percent of harvesting, 80 percent of transporting crops
home and 90 percent of food processing (Steady, 2001). As men’s participation
in agriculture declines, the role of women in agricultural production
increases. In Mozambique, for example, for every 100 men working in agriculture
there are now 153 women (Saito, 1994).
Though traditionally,
women do not have land of their own, they do their farming on family plots and
in any available piece of land no matter how small. Women contribute in areas
of food preparation, processing and marketing. The involvement of women in agricultural
food production has no limits. Through increased participation in agriculture,
women have influenced family decisions on what to produce, how to produce, the
sale of small food surpluses to meet their needs and labour-supply. Therefore,
their involvement in agriculture is without doubt (Oluwasola, 1998).
It is obvious that women are very
active in food production. More emphatically, women are the backbone of African
agriculture and Nigeria in particular. In the olden days, when agriculture was
almost the only available profession, men used to marry as many wives as
possible to assist in farm work.
Throughout the world, women constitute a greater part of the work force
especially in the rural areas (Ufiem 2000).
Women are, to a large extent the
backbone of Africa rural economics (Adetenwa, 1998) and they play specific
roles in the production and processing of food. Having seen that women’s effort
cannot be neglected, the World Bank funded two consultancies in Nigeria to determine
the extent of the participation of women in agriculture and recommend
strategies for concretizing their findings in the form of project activities in
1986 (Nonyelu, 1996).
FAOs (1995) report estimates showed
that women contributed over 50 percent of the
labour force in 56 countries out of 82 developing countries in the world. These figures show the
importance of women in the agricultural development process. Furthermore,
Mickewait (1999) observed that most African women are significantly engaged in
subsistence agriculture; emphasizing Olayide’s (1993) classification of them as
the backbones or pillars of small peasant farmers in Nigeria.