TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page – – – – – – – – – iii
Certification-
– – – – – – – iv
Dedication – – – – – – – – – v
Acknowledgment –
– – – – – – – vi
Table of contents –
– – – – – – – – vii
List of table –
– – – –
– – – ix
List of figures –
– — — – – — – x
Abstract-
– – – – – – – – xii
Chapter one: Introduction – – – – – 1
Background information-
– – – 1
Problem Statement –
– – – – – 5
1.3 Purpose of
the study- – – –
– – 8
1.4 Significance
of the study.- – – – – – 8
Chapter Two: Literature
Review – – – –
– 10
2.0 Literature
Review – – – – – – – –
10
2.1 Swamp rice
production technologies in Nigeria- –
– – 10
2.1.1 Rice
Production Systems in Nigeria-
– – – 20
2.1.2 Swamp Rice
varieties recommended for Farmers use
– 22
2.2 Relevant
studies on swamp rice production technologies in Nigeria 25
2.3 Constraints to
the use of swamp rice production technologies and 32
2.4 Strategies used
by Agricultural Development Programme (ADP) in promoting agricultural extension
service.- – – 38
2.5 Conceptual
Framework- – – – – – 40
Chapter Three: Methodology – –
– – –
– 44
3.0
Methodology- – – – – – – 44
3.1 The Study
Area- – – – – – 44
3.2 Population
and sampling procedure-
– – – 46
3.3 Instrument
for data collection – – – –
– 46
3.4 Measurement
of variables – – – – 47
3.5 Data Analysis- – –
– – – – – 49
Chapter Four: Results and Discussion – – –
– 51
4.0 Results and
Discussion- – – – – – – 51
4.1 Personal and
socio-economic characteristics of the respondents. 51
4.2 Institutional
characteristics – – – – – 57
4.2.1 Swamp
rice production technologies available
to the farmers. -62
4.2.2 Use of
available swamp rice production technologies by the farmers 64
4.2.3 Table 7: Swamp Rice Farmer’s level of use of rice
production technologies.- 66
4.2.4 Perceived
factors promoting the use of available swamp rice production technologies –
– – – – – – 66
4.2.5 Perceived
constraints to the use of available swamp rice production technologies. – – – – 70
4.2.6 Hypothesis
– – – – – – – 73
Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation –
– 76
5.1 Summary- –
– – – – – – 76
Conclusion – –
– – – – – 80
Recommendations-
– – – – — 80
References- – – – – – – – – – 83
Appendix – – – – – –
– – – – 92
ABSTRACT
In spite of the use of available production technologies by
swamp rice farmers, much of the world’s intensive food production is still on
small land holdings. Although swamp rice contributes significantly to the food
requirements of the population, its production is far below the national
requirements. Hence this study was designed to assess availability and use of
swamp rice production technologies among farmers in Enugu State, Nigeria.
Primary data were obtained from 96 swamp rice farmers through the use of a
structured interview schedule. Descriptive statistics, multiple regression and
logit regression equation were used to analyze the data. Findings indicated
that (13.3%) of the respondents had no formal education, with a mean household
size of 6 persons. Majority of the respondents (43.2%) borrowed their farmland
and cultivated an average of 3.8 hectares of land yearly. The percentage of the
respondents that belonged to at least one organization was (78.6%), while about
21.4% were not members of any organization. Majority of the respondents (60.6%)
had no access to credit facilities, and 52.4% had no contact with extension
agents while the average contact made by the farmers was 9.5 contacts in the
past one year. Findings of the swamp
rice production technologies available to the farmers included: Rice varieties
such as Nerica and Faro (95.7%), recommended seed/seedling rate (95.7%), planting
with 20×20 cm or 25cm x 25cm spacing (92.0%) control weed using herbicides such
as propanyl-plus (90.4%). Also, the number of respondents that were categorized
as high users was 14.2% while 21% were medium users, 11.5% were categorized as
low users and 3.3% did not use any production technologies. The respondents
perceived the following as factors promoting level of use of swamp rice production technologies; ability
to enhance income of farmers (M = 2.52), adaptable to culture of users (M =
2.35) and access to available technologies (M = 2.28) among others. The
respondent’s perceived constraints to the use of available swamp rice
production technologies include pest, diseases and weeds, (M = 2.64), drought
issues such as rainfall, solar radiation, (M= 2.49) and land tenure issues M =
2.46 among others. The regression results show that there was a significant
relationship (f = 2.341., p< 0.05) between the socio-economic
characteristics of the SR farmers and the use of available SR production
technologies. Furthermore, results of the hypothesis revealed that years of
farming experience (t = 0.032: P = 0.021), membership of social organization (t
= 2.179: p= 0.001) number of contacts with extension workers (t = 0.965; P =
0.000) had positive significant relationship on farmers use of available swamp
rice technologies. The overall finding of the study shows that the identified
constraints to the use of available swamp rice production technologies should
be tackled by government and non government organizations in order to enhance
farmers ability to use available technologies effectively.
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Background information
The two major species of rice commonly cultivated are Oryza
glaberrima and Oryza sativa, with Nigeria and Madagacar accounting for 60% of
the rice land in sub Saharan Africa (SSA) (Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research (CGIAR), 2006). Nigeria is currently the highest rice
producer in West Africa, producing an average of 3.2 million tons of paddy (2
million tons of milled rice) (Damola, 2010). Rice indeed is no longer a luxury
food in Nigeria, and it has become a major source of calories for the urban
poor. The report further adds that the poorest of urban households obtain 33
percent of their cereal-based calories from rice and therefore rice purchases
represent a major component of cash expenditure on cereals.
Swamprice
(SR) is a major food crop of the world by virtue of the extent and variety of
uses and its adaptability to a broad range of climatic, edaphic and cultural
conditions. It is grown under shallow flood or wet paddy conditions. Swamp production is concentrated in areas where
management is convenient on flat low lands, river basins and delta areas. The
crop flourishes well in humid regions of the sub tropic and temperate climates.
About 90% of the world’s swamp rice is produced in tropical, semitropical areas
and consumed where it is grown by small-scale farmers in low-income developing
countries (Food and Agriculture Organization,
(FAO) 2008).Swamp rice is cultivated in virtually all the
agro-ecological zones in Nigeria (Akande,2001). According to Damola (2010),
swamp rice is relatively easy to produce and is grown for sale and for home
consumption. In some areas there is a long tradition of SR growing, but for
many, swamp rice has been considered a luxury food for special occasions only.
With the increased availability of rice, swamp rice has become part of the
everyday diet of many in Nigeria.
National Cereal Research Institute (NCRI) (2008) identifies
three (3)prevalent types of swamp rice production systems in Nigeria viz
rainfed lowland SR, rainfed SR and irrigated swamp rice production systems.
Rainfed lowland SR production system (RLSPS): accounts for about 48% of
Nigerian’s rice area. It is very common in the South Eastern part of Nigeria
such as Enugu, Ebonyi etc. The rice
yield is generally high and ranges from 2-8 tons/ha and it is also estimated to
contribute about 53% to national rice production source (Atala, 2009) Rainfed
SR production system (RSRPS): accounts for 30% of the total rice production
area with more than 1.30mm of annual rainfall. It is predominant in the
southern part of Nigeria and mostly found in the flooded river valleys, which
accounts for about half of total rice areas and has an average yield of 2.2
tonnes (Akpokodji, Lancon and Erenstein, 2009).
Irrigated swam price production system (ISPS) which is the most recently
developed rice environment in Nigeria is common in the Northern and Southern
part of Nigeria. Irrigation is supplied from rivers, wells, bore holes among
others to supplement the rain for full rice crop growth. It contributes about
16% of cultivated rice land and yields range from 2-8 ton/ha thus accounting
for 27% of national rice supply. (Saka,
2010)
Other less common rice production systems include the deep
water (floating rice) (Deep water swamp rice production system) which
constitutes about 5% of the national rice production area. The yields are very
low due to the predominant use of unimproved rice variety (Oglaberrima steud),
which yields less than 1 ton /ha. It accounts for about 3% of the national rice
output. Also, the tidal (mangrove) Swamp rice(TSPS) which lies between the
coast line and fresh water swamps has potential for one million hectares of
cultivable rice area but at present contributes less than 2% to national rice
production with low rice yields of only about 1 ton/ha. (FAO, 2009).
Consequently, rice production technologies have been
developed for swamp rice farmers, but these technologies have not been fully
utilized by the farmers. Such rice
production technologies include: use of
appropriate seed/ seedling varieties such as Nerica, Faro 44, 43 etc, use of
appropriate seed rate such as 30 – 40kg seed per hectare, use of pre and post
emergence herbicides, land preparation
technologies such as ploughing and harrowing, time of planting,
appropriate spacing, pest and disease control etc. (FAN, 2007).
Nigeria is the largest swamp rice producing country in West
African region and swamp rice production increased gradually over the years
with area expansion to surpass major rice producing countries like Cote d’voire
and Sierra Leone .(WARDA, 2004)
Unfortunately, the increase in demand in recent times has not been accompanied
with a corresponding rise in production. This is attributed to wide spread
poverty, dominance of the nation’s agriculture by small holders, the use of
relatively primitive tools for farm operations lack of exposure to improved
agricultural technologies (improved seeds, fertilizers, pesticides etc) and
inadequate farm mechanization aids by government (Damola, 2010).
Ani and Kwaghe (1997) observed that the process of
increasing efficiency of agricultural production through agricultural
modernization depends mainly on the extent to which farmers can incorporate
improved agricultural practices into farming operations. This, according to
Sule, Ogunwale and Atala (2006) necessarily entails shifting away from the drudgery
of age-long use of traditional methods to the ‘utilization of modern production
techniques so as to accomplish self sufficiency in food production and
improvement of life in the rural areas. It has long been recognized by experts
in this field that the only way to significantly increase the productivity of
the small scale farmers in developing countries is to improve the farmer’s
technological capabilities.
Technology may therefore be defined as the specialized
knowledge, skills, methods and techniques required for production and
distribution of goods and services. Agricultural technology can also be
embodied in people, tools, crop varieties, agricultural practice, and
processing equipment. Technology according to Ayoola (2001) includes the
totality of how the society performs particular activities. Specifically
therefore, agricultural technology consists of the nature and types of
available inputs (for example, seeds, fertilizer, chemicals, tools, machines,
farm power e t c.) and the way in which these inputs are combined (for example,
land fertilizer ratio, labour-machine ratio).
Recent studies has shown that SR production technologies
have not been able to meet the increasing demand for rice (FAO, 2002). In the
West African sub region, Nigeria has experienced a well established growing
demand for rice caused by rising per capita consumption and consequently the
insufficient domestic production had to be complemented with enormous import
both in quantity and value at various times (Saka and Lawal, 2009). According
to the United State Agency for International Development (USAID) (2010),
Nigeria’s rice sub sector is dominated by weak and insufficient producer-market
linkage due to poor infrastructure and limited efficiency of distribution
network which has resulted to low productivity and participation of farmers in
the rice field.
In order to reduce the rate of rice importation, Saka and
Lawal (2009) were of the opinion that disseminating improved varieties and
other modern inputs as a composite package to rice farmers is very important.
Nwite Igwe and Wakatsuki (2008) indicated that the adoption of rice production
technologies should lead to substantial yield increase in rice production.
However, this invariably underscores the important role technology stands to
play in attaining the much needed growth in the rice sub sector. As a result of
this, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) (1996) opined that new rice
varieties that combine higher yield potential with excellent grain quality,
resistance to biotic and abiotic stress and input use efficiency are
desperately needed to reduce the importation of foreign rice. Kebede (2001)
indicated that growth in production can be gained through the use of
technologies and allocative efficiencies of farmers in response to the changing
techniques and production environment. Hence, adoption of technologies should
lead to substantial yield increase.