Abstract
In the wake of a revolutionary change of interest from language form
to language function, attention of many language scholars have been
shifted from the structural pattern of language to the function the
language is used to perform in social discourses. The present study is
one of such endeavours, and essentially explored the fields of Discourse
and Stylistics by pointing out their different, but related, methods of
text analysis. A brief analysis of an excerpt of President Muhammadu
Buhari’s Democracy Day Speech of 29th May, 2015 revealed that Discourse
investigates more and reproduces more meaning from a textthan
Stylistics. Stylistics is only a tool used in Discourse.
1.0. Introduction
Prior to the advent of Discourse Analysis and Stylistics, the
preoccupation of many linguists was basically the study of the
structural pattern and form of language without much regard for the
context and other features that shape meaning. Over the years however,
the attention of language scholars has been shifted from language form
to language function. Consequently, many scholars in humanities and
social sciences have become keenly interested in the study of Discourse
and Stylistics (Olateju 7).
Discourse and Stylistics are two different but closely related
linguistic disciplines that are inseparable. The relationship between
them can be likened to the proverbial controversy in the actual
maternity of the hen and the egg. This is because it is very difficult
to draw a line of demarcation between Discourse and Stylistics. While on
the one hand, there is hardly any exercise on Discourse without a bit
of Stylistic input, Discourse,on the other hand, “is broader in its
analysis (Aziz n.pag).While Discourse is essentially communication,
Stylistics on the other hand is concerned with the study of the pattern
and style of what is communicated. In this study, we shall attempt to
discuss Discourse and Stylistics and explore the various ways each of
them approach analysis of a given text. To do this properly, we shall
analyze paragraph five of President Muhammadu Buhari’s Democracy Day
Speech on 29th May, 2016 to reveal thelevels or methods of text analysis
in Discourse and Stylistics.
2.0. What is Discourse?
The word 'discourse' comes from Latin 'discursus' which
denotes 'conversation, speech'(Taiwo 14). According to Johnstone, it is
“actual instances ofcommunication in the medium of language” (2).
Discourse is a discipline that has no stable definition. This is because
so many scholars have given varied definitions to it based on their
views of the subject matter. The common definition is given by Stubbs.
He describes Discourse as “language above the sentence or above the
clause” (1). Discourse is meaning communicated far above what is said.
The study of Discourse is indeed the “study of many aspects of language
use (Fasold 65). Discourse is essentially the study of language in use.
The term Discourse was first used by Zellig Harris in a paper he
presented in 1952.As a structural linguist, he did not use Discourse in
the sense that is commonly used now. He used it only as a sequence of
utterances. It was in the late 1960s that scholars began to use the term
as an approach to the study of social interaction. (Taiwo 16).
Discourse was fully developed in the 1970s as a critique of cognitive
process in communication. It is based on the notion that language needs a
context for it to function properly. Thus, it becomes very impossible
to understand the linguistic items used in discourse without a context
(Ahmad 1).
Discourse is viewed as social performance or a social action. It is a
relative social phenomenon that depends solely on wide range of
disciplines, such as Psychology, Anthropology, Philosophy,
Anthropological Linguistics, Sociology, Cognitive and Social Psychology.
This fact is corroborated by Fairclough when he opines that “Discourse
constitutes the social. Three dimensions of the social are
distinguished- knowledge, social relations, and social identity-and
these correspond respectively to three major functions of language” (8).
Discourse, viewed from the linguistic perspective, is, in turn,
composed of a wide range of disciplines, such as Stylistics, Pragmatics,
Conversational Analysis and Speech Act Theory (Ahmad 2).
2.1. Discourse, Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis
Discourse, Discourse Analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis could
be described as a three- in-one discipline mostly used interchangeably
especially by non linguists. Discourse is not the same as Discourse
Analysis. While Discourse is communication, Discourse Analysis on the
other hand is a way of analysing communication (Aziz n.pag). When the
analysis of a particular discourse aims at exposing the covert ideology
embedded in such a discourse, it can then be said to be at the domain of
Critical Discourse Analysis. To put it very simple, when Discourse
Analysis becomes more critical (when the hearer or reader uses all
linguistic features available in the said to generate meaning of the
unsaid in a manner that exposes power and abuse of power, dominance,
inequality and invested ideologies) , it becomes Critical Discourse
Analysis.Generally speaking, every discourse is structured by dominance
and the dominant structures are legitimated by the ideologies of
powerful groups (Wodak and Meyer 3).
Discourse Analysis basically studies and examines how an addresser
structures his linguistic messages for the addressee and how the
addressee in turn uses some linguistic cues to interpret them (the
messages) (Brown and Yule qtd. in Taiwo 15).
Social context plays a vital role in generating meaning in a
discourse. In fact, it determines the meaning that is to be
communicated. Similarly, certain contextual features equally shape the
language people use. These are: the interlocutors themselves, their
discourse roles and the physical environment of the discourse, the
worldview and cultural practices in the domain of the discourse.
Discourse Analysis considers language,used together with the
aforementioned features, to determine meaning. Discourse Analysis thus
generates data for analysis based on the observation and the intuition
of the language users. This is why Taiwo believes that a discourse
analyst can analyze virtually every conversation, like “(casual,
telephone, gossip, etc), speeches (campaigns, formal speeches delivered by political figures, etc), written discourse (novels, plays, news, written speeches, editorials, etc)” (15).
Discourse analysis picks up from where stylistics stops. The tasking
questions discourse often asks are: What makes the speaker or writer use
language the way he or she does? How does the hearer or reader
interpret what the speaker or writer says or writes? Of course, this is
where discourse shares a common boundary with Pragmatics. Indeed, the
speaker or writer has total control of the choice of words to use but he
or she certainly does not have control of the meaning the listener or
speaker would derive from what is said or written (Aziz n.pag).
2.2. Basic Concepts in Discourse
•Text
In Discourse, text simply means any instance of language in use. This
comprises not only written language but also spoken language. A text
could be as small as a word or sentence and could also be as large as a
paragraph (Aziz n. pag). A text could equally be a whole chapter, a news
item or a conversation. For a piece to be qualified as a text, Halliday
and Hassan believe, it must form a “unified whole”(1). When that
happens, it can then be regarded as a semantic unit.
A text is meant to have a texture. Texture, as used here, is the
parameter that distinguishes a text from something that is not a text.
Information in a text flows within and among sentences through the
interplay of coherence and cohesion.
•Coherence and Cohesion
Coherence concerns with sense in a text. That is to say that when a
text makes sense to a reader or a hearer, it is said to be coherent
(Osisanwoqtd. in Ogunsiji 48). Cohesion on the other hand is a Latin
word for “striking together” (Stern qtd. in Ogunsiji 48). It is a term
in Discourse that relates to how texts are held together lexically and
grammatically as a whole. A text without cohesion is only a disjointed
speech which may not generate any meaning. The following examples can be
used to illustrate coherence and cohesion:
1. Mr. Oko slapped his wife. His wife did not cook for him. (Coherent but not cohesive).
2. Mr. Oko slapped his wife because she did not cook for him. (Coherent and cohesive).
Note: The conjunction “because” and the pronouns “she” and “him” in
the second text are cohesive ties or devices employed to enhance
coherence and cohesion in the text. They are conjunctive cohesion and
referential cohesion respectively.
3. Mr. Oko slapped his wife because South Sudan is the newest African country.(Not coherent but cohesive).
4. Mr. Oko slapped his wife. South Sudan is the newest African country. (Not coherent and not cohesive).
•Coherence in Discourse
Coherence in a discourse manifestsby the extent to which a
particularinstance of language in use is able to match a shared belief,
knowledge and social conventions of interlocutors in a social context.
Unlike cohesion which establishes the linguistic connectivity of
sentences and utterances using cohesive ties, coherence in discourse
relates basically to the establishment of some relationships between
utterances through an interpretation of illocutionary acts. There is an
obvious manifestation of coherence in the following conversation between
two interlocutors:
Speaker A: Sir, the visitors from Daura are already waiting at the
reception.
Speaker B: I’m taking my lunch.
Speaker A: It’s alright Your Excellency.
The discourse above can be interpreted vis- a- vis the social conventions of interaction which include:
Speaker A requests speaker B to perform an action.
Speaker B gives the reason why he cannot comply.
Speaker A understands and proceeds to perform a legitimate action (his duty).
It is discovered that there are no cohesive ties in the above
discourse but the needed cues to identify coherence are conventional
structures of interaction, and this is a shared understanding by the
interlocutors.That is the crux of coherence in discourse.
•Context
Context is a set of facts that surrounds a particular situation.
Viewed from the angle of linguistics, context means everything that
surrounds the production and reception of a piece of
communication.According to van Dijk,“context is subjective mental model
of communicative situation” (n. pag).Communication is better understood
in context. Taiwo corroborates this fact in his explanation of context
and its features which include:
the physical situation in which the communication takes place, the
interactants or interlocutors, the knowledge of the communicators of
their cultural norms and expected behaviour, and the expressions that
precede and follow a particular expression. All these features of
context help language speakers to interpret meaning appropriately.(19)
Discourse dwells so much on the context of language use in social setting.
3.0. What is Stylistics?
Stylistics, in a simple sense, refers to the study of style and
pattern of use by a writer or a speaker. It is the identification of
patterns of usage in speech and writing (Ahmad 2). According to
Ogunsiji, “Stylistics is also defined as a study of the different styles
that are present in either a given utterance or a written text or
document” (2).It is a term that is mostly associated with the literary
genre but modern linguistic exercises have clearly shown that there is
much of stylistic analysis to be done on non literary texts as is done
on literary texts. A literary genre can be seenas style characteristics
that is collectively recognized and agreed upon. Some of the aspects of
literary stylistics include the use of dialogue, the description of
scenes, the use of active and passive voice and the distribution of the
sentence length (Ahmad 2).
Stylistics primarily attempts to explain the principles that informed
the choices made by communicators which clearly manifests in their use
of language. This is skillfullyunraveled by the reader or writer by
studying the style of the initiator of the communication (writer or
speaker). Style on its own is aptly described by Lucas as “the effective
use of language, especially in prose, whether to make statements or to
rouse emotions. It involves first of all the power to put fact with
clarity and brevity” (9).The study of style is central to stylistics. It
is a selection and arrangement of linguistic features which are open to
choice- a choice of words and expression by a particular person in a
particular situation. One major concern of stylistics is the
investigation into the continuous and consistent appearance of certain
structures, items and elements in a speech utterance or in a given text.
Thus, when a text is replete with some certain recurring predominant
words or expressions, a stylistician becomes more interested in his
investigation. Stylistics is particularly important because it enhances
and maximizes our enjoyment of a text.
The relevance of stylistics can never be over emphasized. It is a
technique used to explicate both linguistic and non linguistic text by
objectively defining what an author does in his use of language. A
stylistic analysis of a text in most cases reveals the good and or the
bad qualities of a writing or speech.
3.1. Nature of Stylistics
Stylistics, according to Ogunsiji, is a “borderline discipline
between language and literature”(9). This is because it focuses on
language use in both literary and non literary text.
Stylistics, like Discourse, is multidisciplinary in nature, even
though it has its own focus. It draws insights from disciplines such as
Literature, Psychology, Sociology, Philosophy, and so on.
As earlier explained, Stylistics, majorly, is the study of style of a
text. It looks at style in so many dimensions. They include:
•Style as Choice: This considers style as a choice
the speaker or writer makes in a text that ultimately makes his
utterance or text to stand out. It becomes the responsibility of the
stylistician to identify such a style in his (stylistician) analysis.
•Style as Deviation:
What does not conform to a certain standard could be a style to a
writer or speaker. This is mostly noticed in poetry where the poet has
the poetic license to deviate from an acceptable norm to use language in
a way that pleases him.
•Style as Situation: A style could be adopted by a
speaker or writer based on the situation in question. A text comes to
life through the context or situation. This could be physical,
socio-cultural or pragmatic.
•Style as the Individual: There are specific
features that are associated with a particular speaker or writer due to
his choice of style. That becomes his ideolets. A speaker or writer
stands recognized basically due to his style.
•Style as Time/ Era: This has to do with time
relevance of a style. It deals with whether a particular style is in
vogue or obsolete; whether it is ancient or modern. It is the task of
the stylistician to point this out.
3.2. Text Analysis in Stylistics
The focus of Stylistics is the text. In analyzing a text, the
business of a stylistician is to look at many features of the text.
Stylistic features like graphology, syntax, lexis and semantics are
looked into. These are discussed under the following captions
•Graphological Features
This concerns the physical appearance of a text. The primary focus
here is foregrounding. That is an act of bringing to fore, certain words
to give them prominence. This can be identified by looking at words in
italics, capital letters, bold letters, words that are underlined, and
so on. The use of punctuation marks can equally create stylistic
effects. It is the task of the stylistician to explore and give
description of these graphological features in a text.
•Syntactic Features:
The focus here is on sentence types and the effect they create in a
text. A text may contain a combination of simple, complex, compound and
compound complex sentences or just simple sentences. Aspects of
ellipsis, parataxis, hypotaxis, right and left- branching sentences are
equally considered significant here (Ogunsiji 11).For example, a
dislocation in syntax of a text could mean the dislocation in human
thoughts. James Joyce’s novels are replete with this style.
•Lexico- Semantic Features:
In any stylistic exercise, attention is specially given to words.
This is because words may be used by the speaker or writer to produce
connotative, denotative, associative, collocative, affective, thematic,
idiomatic and even stylistic meanings. The stylistician watches out for
the various meanings conveyed by the use of such words.
4.0. Discourse and Stylistics: Methods of Analysis
Discourse and Stylistics are two linguistic disciplines that are
analyzed using different methods and tools. The text is the object of
analysis for boththe discourse analyst and the stylistician. One
noticeable difference however is the manner in which they approach their
analysis. In fact, a close study of the two methods of analysis shows
that Discourse begins from where Stylistics stops. In this section, we
shall attempt analyses of an excerpt from President Muhammadu Buhari’s
Democracy Day Broadcast on 29th May, 2016 from both the angle of
Discourse and Stylistics in order to point out the slim line of
demarcation between them.
•Analysis of President Muhammadu Buhari’s Democracy Day Speech
Paragraph eight:
From day one, we purposely set out to correct our condition, to
change Nigeria. We reinforced and galvanized our armed forces with new
leadership and resources. We marshaled our neighbours in a joint task
force to tackle and defeat Boko Haram. By the end of December 2015, all
but pockets and remnants had been routed by our gallant armed forces.
Our immediate focus is for a gradual and safe return of internally
displaced persons in safety and dignity and for the resumption of
normalcy in the lives of people living in these areas.
4.1. Stylistic Analysis:
In doing a stylistic analysis of the above text, certain linguistic
features such as graphology, semantics and lexis will be explored.
•Graphological Features
Foregrounding is one predominant feature used in
this paragraph by the speaker which is realized through a particular
lexical item. For example, the first person plural pronoun “we”
as used in the paragraph is a foreground. It is repeated three times in
the paragraph. This is used to show that the achievement recorded so
far in area of security is a collective effort by both the government
and other well meaning Nigerians.
Parallelism is one vital stylistic device that is
equally used to reiterate and emphasize the idea of collectiveness. The
speaker willfully uses the word “we” to begin both sentence 1 and 2 to further emphasize this.
•Syntactic Features
The paragraph contains five sentences with about ninety three words.
All but the last sentence are simple sentences. This is a device used to
enhance audience comprehension, considering the reality of the time. Of
course, this was a time many Nigerians were becoming impatient with the
government which had earlier promised a change in the status quo in
governance. The speaker was obviously aware of this and therefore
skillfully set out to use simple sentences for everyone to understand
very quickly and feel, without difficulties, what the government has
been able to achieve in one year.
One other device used in this paragraph is parataxis, which is an act
of placing togethercohesive clauses without an intervening conjunction
or connective words to achieve coherence. For example:
From day one, we purposely set out to correct our condition, to
change Nigeria. We reinforced and galvanized our armed forces with new
leadership and resources. We marshaled our neighbours in a joint task
force to tackle and defeat Boko Haram.
The use of linking words like “Therefore” and “Also” to begin the
second and third sentences respectively would have, possibly, been used
by the speaker. His style becomes obvious by not using such linking
words to tie up the three sentences which are seen to be cohesive but
not coherent.
In the paragraph, there are words that are intentionally omitted by
the speaker and yet the meaning is communicated. This device, which is
called ellipsis, shall be discussed in detail under discourse analysis.
•Lexico- Semantic Features
Collocation: A close study of this paragraph shows
that the speaker chooses his words to collocate. This points out the
meaning conveyed in the paragraph.
Examples:
“correct” and “condition” (Sentence 1).
“reinforced, galvanized” and “armed forces” (Sentence 2).
“tackle” and “Boko Haram” (Sentence 3).
“resumption” and “normalcy” (Sentence 5).
From the above collocativewords, it can be deduced that there was a problem (represented as “condition”) that was solved (corrected) through the deployment (reinforcement and galvanizing) of the armed forces. The problem was “Boko Haram” that was “tackled”, thereby restoring (resumption of) normalcy to the nation.The meaning of the paragraph becomes so glaring due to the deployment of collocation.
Connotation: Also, the use of words like “correct”, “change”, “reinforced”, “galvanized”, “marshaled”, “defeat”, “routed”, “gallant”is
highly connotative. They are military terms that show action. They
remind the hearer of the military era. In fact, those words connote
action put up by the government to end insurgency.
4.2. Discourse Analysis:
•Cohesion and Coherence
In doing a discourse analysis of the paragraph, we shall first
investigate if the paragraph passes the test of coherence and cohesion. A
cursory glance at the sentences shows that they are coherent.Though
there is no explicit lexical cohesion, the paragraph is however tied up
by grammatical cohesion. Related ideas and thoughts are connected and
tied up in such a manner that the entire paragraph presents a unified
wholemessage. Sentence 1 establishes a point and the rest of the
sentences develop and build upon it. There is a linear progression of
ideas from beginning of the paragraph to the end, and that essentially
brings out the beauty of cohesion. This ultimately explains government’s
efforts in tackling insurgency, beginning from 29th May, 2015 to 29th
May, 2016 (the day the speech was delivered).This exercise is, of
course, a major preoccupation of discourse.
•Ellipsis
Omission of some words and phrases is obviously intentional. Examples of ellipsis as used in the paragraph are:
1. From day one, we purposely set out to correct our condition,[…..] to change Nigeria (Sentence 1).
The phrase, “that is” is intentionally omitted, obviously to create certain effects on the hearer. This means that “to correct our condition” as used in the sentence means “to change Nigeria.”
2. By the end of December 2015, all but pockets and remnants […..] had been routed by our gallant armed forces(Sentence 4).
There is equally a willful omission of “of Boko Haram” in the fourth sentence. This device is used here to avoid undue repetition.
•Reference
There is the use of anaphoric reference in the paragraph. Anaphoric
reference draws the attention of hearer or reader to a preceding text.
In this case, “all” in sentence 4 refers to Boko Haram mentioned in the preceding sentence
•Revelation of Power and Ideology
The choice of words and tone of the speaker obviously unearths power and ideology. Such words as: “correct”, “change”, “reinforced”, “galvanized”, “marshaled”, “defeat”, “routed”, “gallant”
connote militarist ideology of the speaker. This portrays power and
essentially unveils the opaque ideology hidden in the speech. There is
no gainsaying the fact that President Muhammadu Buhari has a military
background, and that ultimately reflects in his choice of words.
5.0. Conclusion
Discourse and Stylistics are linguistic disciplines that analyze text
in an attempt to establish principles in explaining the particular
choices made by individuals and social groups in their use of
language(Ahmad 2) which,by extension, produces and reproduces
meaning.Though it is a herculean task in trying to locate a demarcating
line between the two disciplines, it has been discovered that they
approach the analysis of a text with different,but similar, methods.
While a discourse analyst approaches his analysis by looking for such
things as the textuality, coherence and cohesive interplay of the text
which by extension could reveal ideology and power inherent in a
discourse, the stylistician on the other hand analyzes the style and
pattern of language use in a text. Discourse is concerned with language
in use, analysis of language in social, political, religious and
cultural contexts, Conversational Analysis, Speech Acts, Co-operative
Principles and so on. In a nutshell, Discourse relies so much on various
other disciplines. Stylistics’ major concern is the idea of style and
what informs the choice of such style. One common denominator between
Discourse and Stylistics is that both have text as the object of
analysis.
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